The most important advancement in biology

Arthur Kornberg discovered and purified DNA polymerase I from E. coli in 1956, earning the 1959 Nobel Prize. Thomas Steitz determined DNA polymerase crystal structures revealing catalytic mechanism. Kary Mullis exploited Taq polymerase from Thermus aquaticus for PCR invention earning the 1993 Nobel Prize. Molecular biologists use diverse polymerases for DNA replication research and biotechnology.

Kary Mullis conceived PCR in 1983 while driving, earning the 1993 Nobel Prize. The technique revolutionized molecular biology enabling researchers worldwide to amplify DNA from minute samples. Biotechnology companies commercialize PCR reagents and thermocyclers. Forensic scientists, medical diagnosticians, and evolutionary biologists employ PCR as fundamental tool.

Russell Higuchi developed real-time PCR in the 1990s. Reverse transcriptase discovery by David Baltimore and Howard Temin earned the 1975 Nobel Prize. Clinical microbiologists employ RT-PCR for viral load quantification. COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated RT-PCR’s critical role in disease surveillance and diagnosis with billions of tests performed worldwide.

Arne Tiselius developed electrophoresis in the 1930s earning the 1948 Nobel Prize. Oliver Smithies adapted the technique for macromolecules. Philip Sharp used gel electrophoresis discovering RNA splicing earning the 1993 Nobel Prize. Molecular biologists employ electrophoresis routinely for DNA fragment analysis, purification, and quality control.

Frederick Sanger developed chain-termination sequencing earning his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1980. Leroy Hood automated Sanger sequencing using fluorescent dyes enabling high-throughput applications. The Human Genome Project employed Sanger sequencing determining 3 billion base pairs over 13 years. Clinical laboratories use Sanger sequencing for validating variants and low-throughput applications.

Jay Shendure, George Church, and colleagues developed massively parallel sequencing methods in the 2000s. Solexa (acquired by Illumina) commercialized sequencing-by-synthesis technology. David Bentley engineered bridge amplification creating sequencing clusters. Researchers sequence entire human genomes routinely at costs under $1000 versus$100 million for first genomes.